Role of Sustainable Agriculture in Reducing Hunger and Sustaining Rural Livelihoods in
Dr. Syed Wajid H.Pirzada*
*Consultant, assisted by Mr. Sohail Paracha of EJAD,
The Study:
Objectives:
-Exploring indigenous farming practices and mapping agrarian change in the country;
-Examining indigenous farming practices vs. modern farming from poor communities’ livelihood perspective;
-Examining the traditional role of women in sustaining food security and agricultural production in the country and impact of modern agriculture policies over time on the livelihood of women;
-Identifying the losers & gainers of public policies
-Digging out success stories of alternate farming practices in selected developing countries to identify the extent to which that contributed to the livelihood for poor communities, especially of women;
-Identifying ways at various levels in which agricultural system in the country could be corrected to help improve livelihood for rural communities on sustainable basis.
-Identifying, more specially, ways by which role of women in agricultural production, marketing and sustaining household’ livelihood could be enhanced.
Methodology:
While undertaking this study, a combination of research tools on lines of PRA/RRA & RMA, including inter alia semi-structured questionnaire /check list, group discussions, interviews and direct observations were employed, working with key stakeholders. The success stories regarding alternate farming practices in selected developing countries to identify the extent to which that contributed to the livelihood for poor communities, especially of women have been used to substantiate the argument and thus suggest the way forward-the development pathway. The study captures the essence of policy instruments and benefits from the work conducted earlier. It suggests a development pathway, in the form of a set of recommendations, for the policy makers, the development practitioners and other stakeholders.
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Global, Regional & National Context
3. Findings
4. Way Forward: Development Pathway
5. Resources Cited
Part 1 & 2 of the report set a context, both global & national, of the study and captures inter alia the followings:
(a) Overview of
(b) Traditional role of women in sustaining food security and agricultural production in the country;
(c) Mapping change, over time, in
(d) Losers and gainers of policies, pursued in terms of overall impact on poverty and livelihoods;
(e) Success stories of alternate agriculture farming in selected developing countries;
(f) Figuring out a model that holds promise for sustainable agriculture Suggestions for action at the national level to revive sustainable agriculture model in the country;
1.Introduction:
Agriculture is an integral part of every day life in Pakistan, for not only it employs 44 percent of workforce of the country, but also for it provides food to the population, raw materials for industries, such as textile and clothing, wood- a source of fuel and shelter for majority of the people in Pakistan, herbs for medicines, and above all means of sustenance and livelihoods. In other words majority of the people in
Out of total land area of the country, 80 million hectares, 21 million hectares is cultivable. Of the total cropped areas 16.2 million hectares (77%) is irrigated and 6.01 million hectares is rain-fed. The annual rainfall in
Percolated irrigation water has raised the underground water level and subsequent water logging. Excessive salinity of the underground water has also harmful effects on the soil body. Ascent of dissolved minerals of irrigation water through capillary action increases the soil at salinity and damages its fertility. It is rightly said that water logging is the cancer of the soil. Because of poor soil drainage and improper irrigation practices, the huge amount of arable land is waterlogged and has become saline now. This problems has destroyed millions of acres of farmland in the country. Water logging and deposition of whitish crust of salts are changing farmland into unproductive land and many areas, the crop fields are reduced considerably. Reports say that during every five minutes, one acre fertile farmland is taken out from agriculture, because of this problem.
Over the years, about 40 per cent of the irrigated cropping land in
Whereas, numerous efforts have been made in the past 40 years to counter issues like water logging and salinity and reclaiming damaged fields. All campaigns in this direction, however, suffered from two shortcomings. One, while affected lands were restored for cultivation, the malaise continued spreading & engulfing other areas. Two key drainage channels constructed to rehabilitate land, got clogged for lack of maintenance.
Whereas,
The productive capacity of a soil is often related to its inherent properties.. Erosion removes top-soil and thus exposes sub-soil, thereby changing its characteristic productivity. Removal of soil by erosion and subsequent incorporation of underlying material by tillage reduces the organic matter. Reduction of organic carbon is associated with reduction in profile NO3-N and CEC. The contents of P. Zn, Fe and Mn decrease as severity of erosion increase. The physical properties such as water holding capacity and infiltration capacity are reduced due to soil erosion which consequently further enhances the process. The soil structure is highly variable throughout the country and largely affects its erodibility. Soils of some areas are several times more erodable than others. The soil structure and water holding capacity can be improved by green mannuring, whereas heavy mannuring reduces the soil erodibility up to five times. Soil erodibility can also be reduced by developing vegetation cover, because root system of plants penetrates into the soil and binds its particles in proper place. In this backdrop, need for sustainable agriculture-making agricultural practices economically viable, helping meeting human needs for food & fibre on long term basis; and at the same time ensuring that these are environment-friendly and supportive to the well being and quality of life of the present population and generations to come becomes more relevant.. In sum, sustainable agriculture seeks to make use of nature’s goods and ecosystem services while producing an optimal yield in an economically, environmentally, and socially rewarding way, preserving resources-the mother nature, for future generations to come.
2.Global, Regional & National Context:
What sustainable agriculture implies?
The United Nation’s Food & Agriculture Organization (UN/FAO) has defined the sustainable agriculture and rural development as:
"......the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of the human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in agriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable."
The premise of sustainable agriculture is that if the global community is able to promote sustainable agricultural systems, preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services globally, it not only can [potentially] feed the present population but also can ensure sustained availability of needed resource base(s) for generations to follow. On the other hand, if it fails in this obligation environmental and human security can be at stake.
Unfortunately, because of unsustainable practices, the mounting populations pressure and intensive agricultural production systems have increased pressures on agricultural diversity and natural resource base, including inter alia on land & water. Take the example of water alone, which is a basic requirement and thus an integral part of agriculture and ecosystem .Its ever- increasing demand has constrained its availability, and has also compromised its quality, seriously affecting human health. Likewise, unsustainable practices of land use has led to soil erosion and a decrease in soil productivity. This in turn has led to over mining of agricultural resources thus undermining the long-term sustainability of agriculture, with serious consequences for the health and well being of all the people, and survival & co existence all living creatures.
In this backdrop, the challenge therefore, for a country like
Agricultural Sustainability- A Global Context: The aforementioned feature of the sustainable agricultural & rural development paradigm can be integrated in the planning & development in a host of ways and by employing different means and technological mix, selection of which will [primarily] depend on the area involved and its socio-economic and technological context. Further, it needs to be appreciated that whereas concept of sustainable agriculture seeks to encourage inter alia organic agriculture it is not restricted to it, and does not promote a specific [or a single] set of technology or practice.
Desertification is yet another problem impacting productivity and sustainability of agriculture in
are the major source of water for Treble and Mangla Dams. However, due to heavy soil erosion, caused by deforestation in the catchments, these reservoirs are silting up, thus reducing the capacity of power generation and availability of irrigation water. Barani(rain-fed) lands are subjected to heavy soil erosion, primarily
due to improper land use by crop cultivation, livestock grazing and illegal removal of vegetation cover.
Deserts have acute problems of shifting sand dunes and salinity. The irrigated areas are infested with the twin-menace of water logging and salinity. Because of mismanagement of Suleiman Rut Kohi areas, there is substantial damage to crops and property by flash floods. Underground water resources in western dry mountains of Balochistan are shrinking, due to very little recharge, overexploitation of the meager quantity of water for horticulture and crop cultivation. The productivity of rangelands is hampered by heavy livestock pressure. The arid coastal strips and mangrove areas are under increased environmental stress from reduced fresh water flows, sewage and industrial pollution and overexploitation of other
natural resources.
In the above context, sustainable agriculture can be better understood in terms of adaptability and flexibility of agriculture over time to respond to the changing demand for food &fiber, its impact on natural resources in terms of production requirements, and its ability to protect the soil and the resources. Such a cherished goal requires efficient use of technologies in a way conducive to sustainability. Finally, agriculture can also be concomitantly affected by changes in market and resource decisions in other sectors & regions, such as trade liberalization. It is therefore, important to ensure that such changes do not lead to an adverse effect on local resource base, in terms of its productivity & sustainability and capacity to support livelihood of the local communities-the custodians of these resources.
Agricultural
The Economic and Social Council, Commission on Sustainable Development in its report by the Secretary General (8th Session,24 April-
The drivers of change: These include inter alia rapid urbanization in the developing countries(DCs), competition for water among different uses, environmental concerns, degradation of soil and water resources, population pressures, high levels of malnutrition and world market prices of cereals at levels below their long-term trends.
Stress on water resources can occur when the current and foreseen demand exceeds the amount of economically exploitable water available from all water sources. The relationship exists between the limitations of natural water systems and the deficiencies in the whole range of water management policies and services that determine the use & disposal of water.
Potential to produce more food-future food security must come from increased yield: Both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture have the potential to produce more food per unit of land and per unit of water. Future food security must come from increased yields in both types of agriculture. Irrigated agriculture as practiced, for example, by large numbers of poor farmers in South Asia suffers, among other things, from poor maintenance of irrigation structures, inadequate drainage, unreliability of irrigation supplies, salinization of the land, outdated institutional arrangements and insufficient investments in other production inputs, such as fertilizers, pest control and good quality seed. Production in rain-fed agriculture, as practiced in some parts of the regions/countries-like
Future has in store, both opportunities & serious challenges: In the context of socio-economic dimensions of agriculture, land & water, the report maintains that the future will bring opportunities as well as serious challenges. By 2025, approximately 60 per cent of the world’s population will live in urban areas. A major concern is to have access to food that is cheap, particularly for urban consumers. In addition, it should be palatable and, preferably, free from health and environmental hazards.
In an urbanizing world, the very basis of human livelihood and well-being inevitably continues to depend on how men & women manage their land& water resources i.e. in a sustainable way. The challenge to feed a rapidly growing world population is not only a matter of producing enough food and other biomass, such as feed & fibre, but also to make the required food items accessible to all people at all times, that is, to achieve food security. These objectives of agricultural sustainability & food security have to be achieved in an increasingly competitive and resource-scarce world. It is often difficult to mobilize essential resources, such as agricultural credit, in general and adequate & timely volume of water, in particular. The structural transformation of the agricultural sector will raise questions about the viability of various types of agriculture in different environments. In this regard, it is relevant to consider that agriculture serves not only the cause of food production but if developed on sustainable bases it is also environmentally sustainable, and has a role in supporting a viable social structure in rural areas.
Farming at first instance associated with soil & water management for the optimal production of food & other biomass. In this backdrop, it is important to assess the situation of farmers and their aspirations. Equally important is to consider the conditions under which farming family, the next generation will be living, and what kind of livelihood they are seeking for themselves. Needless to mention that in all countries, including
The population mounting pressure: The future is unknown, but the desired future looks different from what characterizes large parts of the world today. Today almost 1,000 million people live in absolute poverty, 70 per cent of whom are rural people, and for many chronic hunger is a reality. The worst affected regions [in
Food insecurity is a striking feature also among those who are farmers. The UN/FAO sources maintain that the number of undernourished people has declined by about 5 per cent since 1990-92, but still almost 800 million go hungry in the DCs, and some 30 million in other countries. Being well nourished is not only a matter of caloric-intake but also of eating the right combination of nutrients and proper absorption/assimilation-nutritional health. The lowest per capita nutrition levels and the highest population growth often go together.
Food security-A daunting task: The implications of such a situation, as outlined in the preceding paragraph, could be that an increasing part of food production must take place somewhere else than where it was needed and consumed. A combination of low purchasing power among a large proportion of the world community and lack of opportunities to produce food for one’s own consumption makes food security a most difficult task. Apart from the challenges related to poverty, under- nutrition and fast-growing population, food production must also be seen in the context of consumer preferences. The fact that certain food items can be produced is no guarantee that they will be demanded or that people can afford to purchase them.
Indigenous knowledge & sustainable development: The recognition that indigenous knowledge among farmers has intrinsic merits and holds development potential has evolved during last two decades, which is a cornerstone in the new approach to rural development. To build on indigenous knowledge is in sharp contrast to conventional approaches in development & extension that relied on transfer of, often inappropriate technologies from other hydro-climatic zones and socio-economic cultures. Researchers, advisers, farmers and policy makers need to work together to make use of available knowledge, regarding promising technologies and farmers’ practices, to the advantage of those who would benefit from their adoption. Furthermore, the focus in rural development has generally shifted towards human resource development, farmer participation, farmer management, farmer experimentation, adaptation and dissemination. Assuring real research-extension-farmer linkages is a major concern in current development efforts, especially in efforts to introduce innovative technologies.
Sharpened focus needed on land and water resource management: It is being increasingly recognized that the focus should be on the management of land and water resources, with due consideration for the specific context in which local farming takes place. Figures on the overall availability or scarcity of natural resources are often quite crude, although necessary as a basis for the analysis.
Two strategic questions for the policy makers: i. What can be done to deal with increasing scarcity and threatening resource degradation, and
ii. What role do various technologies, extension, credit, market, institutions have in efforts to achieve the food security?
Further, management options for improved food security that can be realistically exploited should be identified, including what kinds of agricultural systems are viable, socially, economically and environmentally.
Water scarcity & sustainable agriculture: To arrive at a realistic estimate of the total amount of water that is actually utilized for food production, industry & households, it is necessary to consider the reliance on rainwater. There is a tendency to overlook the fact that the largest share of global food self-sufficiency and security relies on rainwater and not on irrigation supplies. Even irrigated agriculture is fed in part by the rainwater. The issue is that many countries are approaching water scarcity conditions and few currently have the means to manage the demand for food effectively or import all their food requirements. According to the comprehensive assessment of the freshwater resources of the world, submitted to the Commission on Sustainable Development at its 5th Session in 1997, about one third of the world’s population live in countries that are experiencing moderate to high water stress partly resulting from increasing demands from a growing population and human activities. By 2025, it is estimated that as much as two thirds of the world’s population (over 5 billion people) could be living in countries under water stress conditions. Given that the number of food deficit countries is also increasing, it raises the question, where the food (and the water needed to grow it) is to come from, and how the transfer from food surplus to food deficit areas is going to be organized and guaranteed.
Irrigated agriculture accounts for the largest part of the water withdrawal, globally about 70 per cent. Only a part of this water is consumed, when it returns to the atmosphere as evaporation from reservoirs and evapo-transpiration from the "open landscape" or is incorporated in the crop. In water-scarce tropical countries, the share of withdrawals from run-off flows for irrigation can be as high as 80-90 per cent, or even higher in some cases. By contrast, the withdrawals for industry & households are on the order of 20-10 per cent respectively, and the water largely circulates in closed systems where consumptive use is limited but the impact on its quality may be significant.
Self-sufficiency & water availability: To understand the dimensions of this problem, it is crucial to make a clear distinction between two kinds of water scarcity, where agriculture is an important sector of the economy and where it is not. Food self-sufficiency, that is, a sufficient production of food within the national boundaries to meet the food requirements of the population, cannot be realistically achieved in situations where the average water availability is at the benchmark level or below. The situation is quite different if the country can embark on a food security policy, that is, where they have the capacity to import adequate amounts of food for their population. In case of
The discussion on water scarcity has substantially broadened during recent years: Although the notions of water stress and scarcity are widely accepted as standard indicators of a growing water challenge, it is also obvious that data on per capita availability does not stipulate the options which society, or the individual water user, may develop and adopt to cope with the changing situation. Generally, water scarcity may be seen as a problem of getting adequate amounts of water of appropriate quality to the right activities & functions at the right place and at the right time at acceptable & affordable cost. Amounts of water, which are reaching the crop, but not during critical stages of plant growth, are of no avail. Similarly, if the limited amounts of water available for distribution is allocated to activities, which are not in line with socio-economic & environmental objectives of a country/ region, it implies inefficient water-resource utilization. This is a reasonable assertion, particularly if other activities that would better serve development objectives are deprived of water. With reference to past indiscriminate water supply policies, a state of relative water scarcity may thus be associated with a process where too much water has been allocated to too few activities with too high a subsidy.
It is not water that is becoming scarce: With respect to water scarcity, it has been argued that it is not water that is becoming scarce but that the number of people and their wants are becoming too many. Added to this is the fact that human-induced water quality deterioration is further diminishing the quantity of freshwater i.e. the amount of water that can be safely used for various purposes.
The most significant question is not whether scarcity exists or not, but what kind of adaptation strategy is feasible when the ratio between people & water increases and how that strategy can be implemented. The kind of adaptation referred to in this context currently differs significantly from the one in the past, when technical solutions on the supply side could be applied to address the water shortages. When shortages may no longer be managed through technical fixes alone, the problem needs to be addressed through adaptation in terms of social and institutional adjustments.
The social adaptation in this context, entails at least two main options. One concerns the need to gradually produce more output and/or value per unit of water. In many cases, this implies new technologies or better use of existing technologies, not to extract more water but to make better use of the available water and other scarce resources. Introduction of new technologies and resource management practices often need to be promoted through a combination of incentives. Moreover, an adaptation often entails yet an other choice of what kind of products & services should be promoted and what kind of products should not be encouraged. Another major issue in connection with social adaptation refers to mitigation & resolution of conflicts that are likely to evolve as a result of scarcity of the natural resource, particularly of the set of potential adaptive behaviors & institutional reforms for addressing the natural resource scarcity and access to services.
Is reallocation of water a solution? An often than not debated proposition is that a growing demand for a limited amount of water from various sectors of a society should lead to reallocation of water from the agricultural sector to urban-industrial sectors. The key argument in this regard is that the return in terms of socio-economic benefits per unit of water is relatively lower in agriculture than can be generated in urban-industrial sectors. It is also perceived that the financial expenditure for irrigated agriculture is quite high, while it takes a long time for financial returns to materialize. This argument is often presented in the absence of an assessment of the cost involved in the production of the same amount of food & fodder in rain-fed agriculture, or even without questioning whether the latter is feasible. Urban and industrial programs may then appear less attractive.
Food vs. water imports: For water-deficit countries, it may be more economically viable to import food products, which are water intensive, from water surplus areas rather than to import large volumes of water that would be required to assure self-sufficiency. Imports of food presume that there is a surplus in other parts of the world and the importing country has the means & the position required for imports. Today, obviously enough food is being produced in the world to cover the total food requirements, but the economic access-the purchasing power, is weak in many of the food-deficit countries, simply because of the fact that their economies are poorly developed. Moreover, international trade or food relief programs are hampered by logistical problems, trade barriers and political & social instabilities. Nevertheless, food security can probably not be achieved if trade in food items is not going to be expanded and facilitated. A careful look at "virtual water" strategies is therefore warranted. In view of the rapid rate at which countries are approaching water scarcity conditions, the time a country has for embarking on a policy of food imports as part of the national development policy should therefore be considered.
Although a vision for long-term change is useful, development plans and projects must have a much shorter time-frame. With increasing water shortage and/or with increasing demand for water from other sectors, it becomes of prime interest to consider three interrelated questions concerning the state of the agricultural sector, currently and in the future:
(a) More crop per drop: What is the possibility of increasing the efficiency of water use in rain-fed and irrigated agriculture? Increasing efficiency presumes a reduction in the volume of water that is utilized to grow a particular crop, and/or that "more crop is produced per drop", that is, an increase in yield per unit water, probably involving intra-sectoral reallocation;
(b) More price for the produce: How to produce more value per unit of water? This can be achieved either by increased efficiency or by switching to other crops or products, which fetch a higher price on the market;
(c) Optimal water allocation: What are the prospects of reducing the amount of water that used to be allocated to the agricultural sector (inter-sectoral reallocation)?
Scoping the prospects for rain-fed and irrigated agriculture:
On a global scale, great progress has been made over recent decades to make food availability/production keep pace with population growth, assisted by the green revolution and the associated increase in irrigation. The rate of increase in water withdrawals during the 20th century has at least doubled the rate of population increase. Most of the water withdrawn from streams, lakes and groundwater aquifers is supplied to irrigated agriculture. However, global figures have only limited significance since they disregard differences between countries that have already reached the limits of their available freshwater flows and those that will never do so. Despite the increasing difficulties and cost of mobilizing additional water for irrigation purposes, it is essential both to expand irrigation schemes and to increase productivity from existing irrigated agriculture, especially in the DCs, where irrigated yields are often way below their potential level, and this holds true for
Research & policy support for institutional development: In some areas, current low yields result from poor drainage and hence waterlogged conditions of the agricultural land, and case in point is district Sanghar of Sindh
In the context of
- Rain-fed Agriculture:
Rain-fed agriculture is currently practiced on over 80 per cent of the cultivated land. Obviously, this will continue to be the case in highly productive temperate zones where rain-fed yields of cereals are high and often considerably higher than yields obtained by irrigated agriculture in semi-arid DCs. In water-scarce tropical regions, rain-fed agriculture also covers more than 95 per cent of the croplands, and will probably remain the predominant source of food. In those countries, including
Increases in food production will however, have to come from increased yields: Most potential cropland is already under cultivation, and in case of
To enhance performance of rain-fed agriculture, it will be necessary to overcome two interrelated problems. i. A sizeable proportion of current farmland is losing productivity due to soil degradation and soil fertility depletion, which often limits crop growth more than water scarcity even in drought-prone areas. The average fertilizer us, per cultivated hectare, in most of the DCs including
As a result of persistent land degradation in many areas, caused primarily by growing demographic pressure, farmers now experience agricultural drought when there is no meteorological drought i.e. the crops suffer from a scarcity of plant-available soil moisture even when there is abundant rainfall. Rain-fed agriculture will continue to change the hydrological cycle in crop fields and also on a watershed scale since a larger proportion of rainfall will be returned to the atmosphere as transpiration. This requires a combination of proper land & water conservation and utilization.
The large proportion of non-productive water flow in the rain-fed crop water balance is an indicator of several problems, related to depletion of soil fertility; physical soil deterioration, especially reduced infiltrability and water-holding capacity as a result of the oxidation of organic matter; and the temporal variability of rainfall distribution. The large proportion of rainfall not used directly for production in upstream rain-fed farming systems, 70- 95 per cent of rainfall points to an opportunity to improve and stabilize crop yields.
Having highlighted the issues impacting agricultural sustainability & livelihood security of the farming communities, lets have a quick look at the technological mix available that can make a difference:
Promising set of technologies:
i. Conservation tillage:
The effects of land mismanagement on crop growth are severe in semi-arid & dry sub-humid tropical landscapes. The resulting low yield levels are due in part to land degradation-induced low infiltration rates of surface soils. In combination with erratic, high-intensity rainfall events, this leads to excessive surface run-off, soil erosion and deficient water for crop growth. A major cause of excessive land degradation in hot tropical regions with high intensity rainfall events is conventional soil preparation by hoe or plough, which together with the removal or burning of crop residues leaves the soil exposed to rain, wind and sun. Conventional tillage, using ox- or tractor-drawn ploughs, which is common in many including
Long-term adverse effects of conventional ploughing on soil productivity: These may include (a) compaction resulting in impermeable hard-pans; (b) increased oxidation of organic matter due to increased aeration and prolonged exposure of bare soil to solar radiation; (c) increased water and wind erosion; and (d) loss of soil water due to increase of evaporative surfaces Added to the physical factors directly affecting soil productivity are the high labor & energy requirements of conventional tillage and the difficulty of ensuring correct timing of farming operations. The latter two factors strongly affect poor small-scale farmers, who generally depend on ox-traction for ploughing operations.
Alternative tillage practices lead to improvements in crop yields: Research from several countries shows significant improvements in crop yields, reduced soil erosion and reduced labor requirements after the introduction of alternative tillage practices, such as ripping, sub-soiling, tied-ridging, pitting and zero-tillage systems. The key to successful conservation tillage is its integration within the total production system. It is probable that conservation tillage has the largest potential of success on structurally conserved land. The change from inverting the soil with a plough to ripping up planting lines only necessitates changes in most farm operations, such as weeding, fertilization, timing of planting and pest management.
ii. Rainwater-harvesting:
Given the above mentioned advantage, improved tillage practices are of little or no help to the farmer during dry spells & droughts. The challenge therefore, lies in the dry spells, when crops suffer from short periods of water stress (often less than three weeks long. When such dry spells occur during sensitive growth stages, such as flowering or grain filling, yields are likely to be much reduced.
An interesting option for such dry spells lies in the combination of soil & water conservation structures, conservation tillage and optimal soil fertility management. With appropriate water-harvesting infrastructure and supplementary irrigation, the crop can then survive on available water in the soil provided that soil fertility levels are adequate Supplementary irrigation is defined as the application of a limited amount of water to a crop when rainfall fails to provide sufficient water for plant growth in order to increase and stabilize yields. The additional amount of water is by itself inadequate for crop production. Hence, the essential characteristic of supplementary irrigation is the supplementary nature of rainfall and irrigation. Marginal lands with annual rainfall of less than 300 mm can be cultivated, provided controlled quantities of additional water are made available. However, past experience with the introduction of supplementary irrigation based on water-harvesting techniques into semi-arid and arid countries has often been disappointing. In many reported cases, the emphasis has been on technical aspects, to the neglect of the socio-economic conditions of the people, for whom the water-harvesting & supplementary irrigation were intended. Acceptance of new technologies by water users is believed to depend largely on their early & sustained involvement in the development and implementation of the techniques. The farmers’ notions of risk & profitability of water-harvesting and supplementary irrigation are particularly important for acceptance or rejection of the new technologies. A convincing cost- benefit analysis is therefore an essential part of the introduction of these techniques.
iii. Integrated soil & water conservation:
Sustainable land management is a key to the sustainable management and conservation of water resources: Soil conservation has a fairly long tradition but has often been biased towards physical structures, such as bunds and terraces, with the prime aim of stopping further soil erosion. Currently, it is widely held that conservation must include both soil & water resources i.e. integrated soil & water conservation. A critical component of such conservation is the need to link soil and water conservation technologies with the actual hydro-climatic deficiencies present in a given location.
Risk management is crucial in rain-fed agriculture: The higher the risk for crop failure due to droughts & dry spells, the lower the likelihood that farmers will invest in other inputs, such as fertilizers, improved varieties and pest management. In-field soil and water conservation contributes relatively little to reducing risks in rain-fed agriculture. In order to substantially reduce risk of crop failure, supplementary irrigation needs to be combined with water-harvesting. Technologies that reduce risk generally cost more and are more difficult to construct & manage. In general, adoption among smallholder farmers is high for in-field soil and water conservation technologies and low for water-harvesting systems.
-Irrigated Agriculture:
Irrigated agriculture is highly productive in many developed and developing countries: It has been widely noted that a large part(2/3rd) of the required increases in food production for the future world population will come from irrigated agriculture. Resources earmarked for improving agricultural performance tend to be directed to favorable areas rather than to marginal areas. A common argument is that a higher output is anticipated from favorable areas, which include irrigated agriculture, and that this output can be achieved at comparatively lower food prices, which of course are in the interests of both urban & rural consumers.
Irrigation projects are often highly subsidized and environmental costs associated with irrigation schemes are usually not reflected in food prices. If the opportunity cost of irrigation water is taken into account, it is not surprising that the privileged status that irrigated agriculture enjoyed for a long time and still enjoys is now being challenged. However, casual dismissal of the importance of irrigation in future food production would be wrong. For one thing, irrigated agriculture is highly productive in many developed and developing countries.
The
Most of the poor farmers, in some regions, including
Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) and the DCs: Many of the problems in today’s irrigated agriculture are the legacy of agricultural policies that evolved in connection with the green revolution of the 1960s and during an era when water resources could still be developed for agricultural use. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) carried out over the last decade in many of the DCs, including
Poor people often spend more than half of their income on food: Many people are still unable to meet their nutritional demands. For the majority of the population in many developing countries, improvement in living conditions depends on productivity increases in agriculture. Crop varieties that can increase productivity under adverse conditions of drought or salinity, lower risks of crop failure, reduce unit production costs and thus lead to lower food prices, improve the nutrient content of food and convert nitrogen in the air to plant nutrients are all suggestive of the potential benefits that modern biotechnology could offer to low-income people in the DCs. Biotechnology in this regard is considered to have great potential for the development of drought- or salt-tolerant crops.
Water use efficiency needs to be improved: Efficiency of water use in rain-fed and irrigated agriculture, which is at lower ebb in case of
Prioritizing the doables:
i. The challenge for the future is to raise yield levels for food crops: Yields of crops ,produced under both rain-fed and irrigated conditions, is to be increased to levels much closer to those attained as best practices in agriculturally developed countries. More widespread use of existing technologies for in-field soil and water management can make substantial differences in yield levels, provided that they are combined with conservation tillage and appropriate levels of all other inputs, such as fertilizers, pest control measures and good quality seed.
ii. The world markets respond to demand and not to need: Food production has been increasing much faster in the developing world than in the developed world. It is expected that by 2020, the developing world will be producing 59 per cent of the world’s cereals and 61 per cent of the world’s meat. Nevertheless, cereal production in the developing world is unlikely to keep pace with demand, and net cereal imports by developing countries are likely to increase significantly between 1995 and 2020 to fill the gap between production and demand, and UN/FAO estimates suggest that Pakistan’s cereal import will further increase. Hence, many developing countries, including Pakistan, will no longer be self-sufficient in grain production.
World markets respond to demand and not to need, and malnutrition will continue in spite of the fact that enough food can be produced for the growing world population. It has been calculated that in the 1980s, 10 per cent more yield gave rise to 4 per cent more jobs in agriculture in contrast to 10 per cent more yield results only in something like 1 per cent more jobs in agriculture these days. Hence, yields have to grow much faster for employment opportunities to increase in the rural areas of the DCs, including Pakistan, and for people to be able to purchase their basic food, highlighting the importance of economic growth that results in more jobs in urban & rural areas alike.
iii. The total amount of water on earth remains the same: There is a growing awareness among people, including in Pakistan, that water is a scarce resource. It forces policy makers and informed farmers to think about the allocation of water to various uses. That agriculture takes the largest share of resources and that much freshwater is flushed through toilets is no longer taken for granted. Rivers cross national boundaries and much more attention is being given to trans-boundary issues in water allocation. Likewise, concerns are expressed about the quality of waste water as it flows back into a country’s rivers, lakes and groundwater after it has served its purpose for industrial, agricultural or domestic users. In some countries, restrictions are imposed on permitted contamination with salt and residues of agrochemicals in drainage water and water percolating to the groundwater from agricultural fields. Such restrictions affect the choice of crops a farmer can grow and also have an effect on farming practices.
iv. Food production needs to be increased substantially in both irrigated & rain-fed agriculture: The basic scientific information to make it possible is available. What is needed is to apply knowledge about best practices as part of an integrated water & land resource management approach, which considers all uses of land & water.
v. Role of multilateral institutions: Four areas can be identified in which the multilateral system like UN/FAO is best placed to take a lead:
a) Policy support to the governments in the priority setting of investments in agriculture: such that initiatives likely to lead to higher yields per unit of water or unit of land are being funded;
b) Data collection & information management on best practices: Such as on water harvesting, supplementary irrigation, simple and cheap drip irrigation systems, in-field soil and water conservation, and institutional arrangements for privatized irrigation systems, and disseminate that information as synthesized knowledge to water users;
c) Monitor the performance: Assess the performance, including cost-benefit analyses, of all measures that are likely to raise yields in farmers’ fields. This should be done worldwide according to a common format to facilitate comparison among various measures and locations in order to identify the necessary conditions for successful introduction of the different measures;
d) Promote research: In (i) Integrated land & water resource management, with added emphasis on the management of groundwater and the effect on downstream water users of hydrological changes introduced elsewhere in the watershed;
(ii) The development of crops & crop species that grow well under conditions of limited water supply or saline conditions, by conventional plant breeding methods and through modern biotechnology.
3.The Findings:
This section reports the qualitative results of study, which are as under:
Indigenous farming practices and agrarian change:
In this study following area of the country were sampled to look in to the issue of agricultural sustainability & livelihood development:
a. Layyah: The district is part of southern Punjab, and is unique in its agricultural ecology, for it has desert & rain-fed, through flood-irrigated to river irrigated agriculture. As such both the agricultural practices & production vary over the length& width of the district.
In terms of agro-ecology the district can be divided in to four zones:
i. Pacca Nasheb
ii. Katcha Nasheb
iii. Layyah thal Jandi
iv. Karor Thal Jandi
v. Thal Kalan
The river Indus water irrigates the low lying(Nasheb).In the irrigated area sugar cane, rice & cotton are the main crops. The area of Thal Jandi is plain, while Thal Kalan consists of sand dunes. The later area is rain-fed, and if there are timely rains sorghum, millet, grams, wheat & oil seeds are grown in this area.
The Layyah district, which witnessed change from a desert-based agriculture to river-irrigated agriculture in some of its area, over last twenty years is now famous for its diversified agricultural base & produce. Not only that it produces some of the traditional subsistence crops but also cash crops. The later have to some extent even displaced the former in certain cases. Some of the horticultural crops like citrus & watermelon from the area are known for their quality & character, and in a way are potential candidates for protection under the Geographical Indications.
Whereas, traditionally in southern Punjab, farm agriculture business is owned primarily by feudal/absentee lords, who have bigger land holdings, the agricultural labor force comes from either-small scale or land less farming community.
The majority people of the area are thus dependent on farm sector and eke out their existence from the agro-livestock mixed farming system. The traditional subsistence crops include inter alia wheat, grams, lentil and ‘matri’ crops. Nevertheless, livestock till today, remains the main stay of the poor people of the area, and crop agriculture & non-farm income tends to substantiate their livelihood means, and thus help improve quality of life in agricultural dependent resource poor communities.
Some of the other cash crops, with enhanced availability of water as mentioned earlier, have made successful in-roads in Layyah area crop ecology, and to name few these are cotton, sugar cane, rice and potato. Interestingly Bt cotton is encroaching the area of cotton under cultivation.
The plough driven, desert/rain-fed agriculture, along with water well-irrigated agriculture was the key crop agricultural system in the past. Besides rain-fed area subsistence crops discussed above, maize, millet, sorghum were the major crops of the area. Likewise dates, coming from this palm tree rich area, was the main horticultural crop of the area in good old days.
Today, the traditional agricultural system has been replaced in almost half of the area with rive/flood irrigation, and the water wells which used to be run with the help of pair of oxen or camel are now operated through either electricity or diesel pumps. Traditionally, agriculture in the area was a low- input agriculture in terms of input cost, as it was primarily the cattle & sheep/goat manure that was used to enrich soils. Today, in it has turned in to high-input agriculture. A gradual paradigm shift, from subsistence to cash crop agriculture has being realized in greater part of the district, which has become the key driver for the change. Today the main crops of the area are sugar cane, cotton, rice & citrus. All these crops tend to depend on water availability, and their yield on maximization of inputs like seed from high yielding varieties, chemical fertilizer & pesticides. This paradigm shift has thus led to concomitant increase in agricultural inputs along with need for mechanization and related inputs like electricity and fuels.
The camel ’the ship of the desert’ used to be the key means of transportation of agricultural goods, too has now been replaced by motorized transportation, which in turn has added additional cost in terms of production & marketing.
As a consequence, on one hand the mechanization, irrigation and use of chemical fertilizer & new seed varieties has helped enhance yields per unit of land, besides introducing new crops in the area. On the other it has increased the cost of production, making agriculture less profitable. The employment capacity of agriculture too has been reduced with mechanization, and for want of value added industry in the area, surplus agricultural manpower is compelled to seek non-farm income means. Given the low literacy rate coupled with low skill level, daily-wage construction work remains the only means of livelihood in majority of cases for the surplus agricultural workforce of the area. As a result the paradigm shift in agriculture is risking agricultural labor, majority of whom are land less, with unemployment & food insecurity. Worst hit are the women and the children, who had greater dependence on agriculture, which used to be not only means of livelihood but also of social security including inter alia food & health security.
Land erosion is a common place especially in marginal & disaster prone areas like Katcha and Bait areas. The paradigm shift has equally adverse effect on environment. Besides issues like soil erosion, environmental contamination, loss of biodiversity is emerging as key concern, and loss of date palm trees is a major threat in this regard. People are compelled to cut date palm trees and sell it to bricklins. This unfortunate scene can be witnessed in length & breadth of Layyah district, which is not only loss to bio-diversity but it also implicates local agricultural ecology, landscape and rural development.
Sugar cane, a water intensive crop grown on wide stretch of the district, feels threatened as farmers are not able to sell their produce to the millers. There I huge difference from Rs. 40-75 % per unit sale and even in certain cases farmers were selling to bricklins, as fuel, for the sugar industry was not paying them the due return.
b. Mustache: The district, is part of Balochistan and is located close to district Dera Ghazi Khan, of southern Punjab. It is one of the poorest districts in terms of opportunities and is thus worst hit by poverty of access to opportunities. Despite the fact that it is closely located to the border, linking Punjab & Balochistan at Dera Ghazi Khan(DG Khan) district of Punjab, yet is remotely placed from the main centres of development of both provinces in general and Balochistan in particular. Further, it got status of district in recent past and was badly lacks in communication and safety net related infrastructures. The low literacy and abject poverty further compound the situation.
Like Balochistan it self the spread of the district and its inhabitants is wide, as such communities are dispersed and there is gross disconnect in terms of formal communication means and available infrastructure. Like other districts of the Province in MK too, hold of feudal lords –the ‘Sardars’ is common. The traditional strength of the district is its ‘Jirga’-based community set up that helps build community organizations, but women in the traditional set up are totally marginalized, and mobilization of women folk in the area is an uphill task.
Agricultural lands of the district, are marginal in character for the district is part of Balochistan desert, and agricultural activities are mainly rain- dependent and women play a major role in these activities especially in rearing sheep flocks & cattle. The province in general is known for water scarcity and MK is no exception, yet in some areas traditional agriculture also partly used to rely on well-based and cattle/camel driven water lifting for irrigation, that has now been replaced by diesel operated Peter pumps. Because of high cost of diesel and pumps, in many cases this introduction can’t be sustained./
The people of the area, in general and women & children in particular are highly dependent on the agricultural produce for their own subsistence and for feeding their livestock, the key economic activity of the area. Rain water harvesting through ‘Rutkohi’ has been traditional practice, and one can build on the indigenous knowledge and further refine such practices, integrating land & water conservation, to the advantage of agriculture and the livelihood of the communities of the area.
Wheat is the major crop primarily produced for local consumption. Some other crops like maize in union council Drugg and vegetables like turnips & radish in Shamm area are also cultivated. Poor availability of water in areas like Shamm is impacting production of such crops. There are few horticultural introductions like almonds, apple, apricot etc but as of now none except almonds, albeit on small-scale, have found roots in the area. All crops including horticultural and barring vegetable produced in some parts like Drugg, all of the production is locally consumed.
It is only the small ruminants(sheep & goats) of the area, which help the community sustain. Unfortunately, this main stay of community to is threatened in terms of sustainability, as the herd size is far beyond the carrying capacity of the land which at first place is highly eroded because of over grazing and for the reason that no rehabilitation plans for rangelands are in place. Secondly, the wood in the area is the only fuel available and as such not only forest is cut to meet own needs of wood but the poorer people of the community are compelled to sell it outside to win the bread for their family. Thirdly, an important vegetation of the area namely Mezzari, with good soil holding ability because of its ling roots and perennial character is also threatened with erosion for it is cut and sold for making mats, carpets. The Mezzari was earlier cut on small scale by local women to make these things on small scale, and now its exploitation by the middlemen has led to its erosion along with the income means of the women of the area.
Because of aforementioned reasons, there is pronounced nutritional deficit for the livestock of the area. There is also sizeable cattle population , along with camel that too are totally dependent on these overgrazed and eroded range lands. This threatens the not only sustainability of livestock farming-the main stay of the community, but also the livelihoods & food security of the people of the distinct. It is worth mentioning that it is the women of the area who normally tend the livestock, as such they along with the children are the one to suffer, if livestock fails to thrive and sustain in the area.
The predominant breed of cattle is non-descript cattle, with possibly some blood of ‘Lohani’ breed. Scarce feed resources lead to stunted growth and cattle stock is generally weak and small- statured. The sheep flock on the other is of ‘Kohistani, blood. It is hardy yet has to find food from the length & breadth of the district and even outside, for this reason sheep farming in the district is transhument and nomadic in character. Health cover, especially in terms of preventive medication and immunization is almost non-existent, and farmers themselves have to treat their animals, on the advice either of quakes or the field veterinary staff located in urban centres.
Camel, which used to be the key transportation means has been replaced by motorized vehicles, as such no alternative development plans for this important animal of the desert are in place, and there is a real threat for preservation & sustainable development of camel population of the area, an integral part of agro-livestock ecology of the area.
Women are also involved in making of butter oil(‘Dessi Ghee’) for domestic consumption, and also weave wool harvested from the sheep flock. Self-trained farmers are involved in wool shearing and mobile team of traditional rug-makers called “Wardig” earlier used to come and knit rugs out of woven wool fibre. The ‘Wardigs’ too it appears are giving up the profession, apparently seeking alternative livelihoods. As such, the traditional means & skills of rug make are also at the verge of erosion.
The women mainly use ‘Mezzri” plant leaves as indicated earlier to weave ropes, thread for the bed-net(‘wan’)mats and like products. This gives them some money and material for domestic use. ‘Mezzri’ is now being sold on contractual basis by the bigger farmers. As a result on one hand excessive damage to this plant species, which has long roots and helps hold the land base, has led to land erosion, and on the other little ’Mezzri’ crop is left for the farming families own use & for income generation.
The common and ecologically friendly wood trees of the area are ‘Phulahi, and wild berry. These two have multiple use, and the former is normally used as fuel. Both are good for honey production but this potential of these tree is rarely realized. Because of damage to ‘Phulahi, trees because of cutting for fuel purposes the number of trees has grossly reduced..
c. Badin: The district falls in the province of Sindh. The agri ecology of the district include rich stretch of Sindh delta and coastal areas. It is one of the key oil & gas producing areas of the country. The agricultural base too is diversified as many cash/food crops are grown, like sugar cane, sunflower, tomato & cotton etc.
The sunflower crop is being cultivated on a wider stretch of this district and has been successful. It is relatively newer introduction in the agri ecology of the district. After initial success, farmers complain that because of poor quality seed, mixed with the hybrid, there productivity has slowed down.
There is no contract farming system in place, and in the absence of it there is every risk that after few years when sunflower production gets roots in the area, and starts generating some surplus no sustainable market would be available.
The district also has good agricultural industrial base such as for sugar cane crushing & processing , rice etc. The main complaint about sugar cane is that it is not fetching due price. The price farmer is paid varies, depending not only the content of sugar but on political or other influence of the seller, and the price varies from Rs.40-75/ per unit sale. In this environment of competition, small farmers are hit hard and there livelihood means are threatened. As a consequence women and children suffer the most. Crushing of sugar cane at farmers field, using traditional local small- scale crushing unit called ‘Chechra’ is prohibited under law, and the farmers are compelled to sell their produce to the local industry at low prices. Furher, some of the industries are not using environment-friendly practices. For example. a sugar industry was throwing its industrial waste in the local drain, which was running across the agricultural fields.
In case of cotton, Bt cotton has taken over recently as against traditional non-GMO varieties in Layyah & Hyderabad districts, and their unauthorized sowing is on increase. The farmers are not aware of any possible consequences, in terms of loss of crop diversity, sustainability or productivity in the future. They maintain that per unit production has increased but are also worried about high input cost, for the inputs being used for the crop.
Tomato, a high value crop, has been successfully introduced in the area but this too lacks market, and there is no tomato processing industry. As such farmers are not even able to pay the transportation price. In the absence of a value-added industry it is difficult to sustain tomato production in the area.
In the marginal coastal belt of the district, the holdings are small( around 4-8 acres) and fall in cyclone prone belt. In two of the areas of the district namely Sukhio Rajo and Ismail Bhatti the community depends heavily on livestock. The area lacks water for irrigation, and drinking water for both the community and their livestock. Coastal belt vegetation is totally eroded and livestock has not much to eat. As such the number & productivity of livestock is very low. Whereas, no new introduction of crops, except some sunflower, or forest plant has been introduced, some of the farmers of the area produce some vegetables but for want of market can not sell & sustain their production. As a result many male members work as daily wage labor in nearby agricultural fields and are paid Rs. 30-40/day for cutting sugar cane crop, for example.
Some community members of the area, are involved in fishing and earn up to Rs. 60-75.They sell their produce to the middle men, for want of storage & cool chain, at approximately half of the price in the city market. In early days there were creaks with sweet water in the area, and some turtle population was there but now water has gone brackish and there is single turtle around.
Case Study: The village Ismail Bhatti, was primarily a rain-fed area .The community used to grow sorghum & millet and some wheat. In 1965,canal irrigation was extended to this area, village was at the tail end though. In earlier, days village received lot of water through irrigation as not much of land was then under cultivation. As a result water logging resulted and ultimately land turned in to a salt flat. Now in some areas, some crops are grown subject to availability of the water. The farmers fail to get enough produce and are compelled to seek non-farm daily wage jobs in the industrial areas. Alternatively they cut already eroded forest and sell it to the coal-making furnace called ‘Kulli’owners. This has further compounded the problem of rangeland/forest and land erosion.
The farming community which was once self- reliant is now facing acute shortage of food for themselves, and their lands are no longer more able to sustain the community of the area. The livestock of the area is low producing and there are no feed resources to sustain them on long-term basis.
d. Hyderabad. The drought hit areas of the district, part of Sindh province is called Kohistan, because of hilly stretch and is one of the most vulnerable areas of the district. The Tehsil Bula Khan lacks in water for both drinking & irrigation. The farmers grow millet, Guar and onion. The later is the main crop, and for want of market is sold at throw away price. For example in early 2008,the price of onion was Rs.2/Kg,whereas in big cities it was then being sold at Rs.20/Kg.The farmers of the area are compelled to seek daily wage, and as rain-harvested water sources dry up they are compelled to leave their lands in search of water and feed for livestock.
There are some 80-90 herbal medicinal plants in the area but for want of information and documentation no practical use of this resource could be evolved in the area.
f. Coastal belt of Karachi: The belt is inhabited by the fishermen, who once migrated to this area from the interior Sindh, from places like district Thatta for securing livelihood.Their main source of earning is fortnightly fish catch. They thus remain in the sea for some 15 days and their women fetch fuel & water. The water, especially in areas like Goth Haji Noor Mohammad(Hawksbay)is brackish and the small land holdings are rain-fed. Crops like Guar and castor oil can potentially be grown but because of poor rain fall and inefficient rain-water harvesting the productivity of lands is on decline.
Some of the trends/indicators, listed below guide towards declining sustainability and thus of eroding livelihood means in the areas sampled in the study:
-Increasing rural to urban migration, food insecurity & poverty: The people, especially landless agricultural & small farmers are leaving their lands and are seeking non-form jobs especially as daily wage labor in urban settings from Layyah through Multan to Islamabad. Besides pressure of urbanization in the civic centres, societal & social disruptions at hands of unemployed rural people are a threat to human security in the area.
In this backdrop, increasing concentration of the population in urban settings i.e. urbanization, because of combined result of natural increase in urban population and rural- urban migration, consequent upon low profitability and reduced employing capacity of agriculture, now appears to be irreversible process in Pakistan. The magnitude and pace of urbanization is therefore a matter of great concern for a DC like Pakistan. Whereas, urbanization has several dimensions, food is central, for food insecurity has far-reaching economic, nutritional, social and health implications. Besides the demographic issue i.e. growing population, there is the every likelihood of increase in urban poverty.
Urban population in Pakistan has been growing fast over the period. In 2002,it was estimated that 33 percent of the total population resided in the urban Pakistan. Urban population of three provinces of Pakistan viz., Punjab, Sindh and NWFP grew at almost the same rate i.e., 3.31, 3.44 and 3.46 percent respectively between 1981 and 1998.
It has been reported that, from proportion of population living in towns and cities, Pakistan was in the midst of gigantic urban increase, and the level of urbanization of 32.5 percent in Pakistan was viewed as highest among the SAARC member countries
A food security study conducted by UN/WFF for urban Pakistan( FSA-2007,in press) in this context reports that this trend of, province-wise urbanization, continues and the districts of the Punjab province have relatively higher level of urbanization, followed by Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan.
With in Punjab, there are four cities as per 2005 estimates, with population of more than one hundred thousand (100,000), while population with in the remaining major cities falls in the range of 60,000-80,000. Out of 231 cities of Pakistan 189(82%) cities fall in the population bracket of 10,000 to 99,999,while in 41 population is around 100,000,exceeding I million in five cities. This clearly reflects that cities in Pakistan are thickly populated, and that cities like Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Hyderabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala and Multan are the most populated cities in Punjab province. Multan being centre of southern Punjab, and Karachi being capital of Sindh therefore are attracting majority of the agriculture labor force leaving the lands from respective rural areas including that of Layyah, Badin etc. The unattended land is threatened with erosion and consequently implicated both agricultural production & sustainability and livelihood development.
Because of this movement of people from rural area to urban satellites mega cities are developing. As a result for example, in Sindh Karachi has emerged as a mega city, and Hyderabad is the 2nd most populous city of the province.
Rapid urbanization in Pakistan poses immense challenge, for cities in Pakistan are ill-equipped to deal with this challenge in terms of civic infrastructure. As result emergence of periurban slums, poorly designed and serviced urban satellites, and consequent upon that the issues related to sanitation, poor access to potable water, diseases etc lead unhygienic conditions that precipitate the food insecurity situation in urban centres because of poor food absorption.
Although Pakistan has registered modest economic growth rate over last few years, population increase had been around 3 percent for decades, and thus per capita income remained relatively low. There is also a strong feeling that benefits of growth were not equitably shared among regions and communities, and southern Punjab and rural Sindh are among the worst hit area in terms of s inequality.
Agricultural production in the country is not enough to feed more mouths, with mounting pressure of population growth. Whereas, the average production of key staple i.e. wheat, increased since 1993-94 from 11 MT to 18 MT in 2006 in Punjab, it remained almost stagnant in other three provinces. For example, according to the Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan (2004-5), wheat production in NWFP & Balochistan was in the range of 1064-1091 & 638-655 thousand tons, from 2002-2005 as against Punjab & Sindh, where during the same period production fell in the 15355-173375 &2109-2509 thousand tons respectively. The situation in NWFP and Balochistan remained almost unimproved during the period. As a result, as reported in FSA 2003, 35(29%) districts in Pakistan were highly deficit in wheat production in 2003.
An average availability of wheat, was estimated at 17571.8 MT, during period from 2000-2001 to 2005-6, as against wheat demand of 17620.6 MT, suggesting a net deficit of 48.7 MT 6.
Since wheat is key contributor (up to 50%) to daily caloric intake in Pakistan, the deficit in wheat requirement & demand, translates to caloric shortfalls and thus to food insecurity. In 8(7%) districts out of 112 caloric intake falls in the range of 3501-4855 Kcal/person, while in 45(40%) districts, on the other extreme caloric intake is in the range of 1477-1800Kcal/person. There are 68(61%) districts, where the caloric intake is in between these two extremes, and falls in the bracket of 1801-3500 K Cal./person.
-Declining traditional role of women in sustaining food security and agricultural production: The women from the farming families of rural Pakistan in general, and of the marginalized areas like ‘Katcha & Bait’ areas of Layyah, Musa Khel districts and interior Sindh are equally involved in agricultural activities especially those related to livestock such as feeding & milk. They also help farmers pick crops, sort & save seeds, and save the production to feed the family. As such, given the needed technical and financial they have demonstrated ability to contribute towards development of sustainable agriculture and towards securing sustained food for the households. In the absence of such underpinnings the women, and consequently children are likely to be worst hit both in terms of income means and food security.
The Key threats to Sustainability:
i. Absolute shift towards cash crops, as in case of Layyah, Badin & Hyderabad where BT cotton is encroaching, and changing agri ecology
ii. High input cost, and lack of market making agriculture non-profitable, as in case of sugar cane crop in almost all areas
iii. Farmers leaving lands for want of income, as these fail to sustain their livelihood means
iv. Land erosion, because of lack of due management in rain-fed areas, floods in flood- irrigated area such as in Bait area of Layyah (Punjab); and in Mussakhel
v. Loss of biological resources/biodiversity (crop, livestock & marine) because of damage to land/rangelands/marine life
vi. Over-mining of soil/marine reserves as in case of coastal belts because of deep sea/bad fishing practices
vii. Inefficient/non-sustainable use of water for example in District Sanghar Sindh(land has tuned water logged now)
viii. Polluted water bodies, as in areas near to coast lines & industries e.g. in Badin
ix. Changing soil structure, as in case of Ismail Bhatti(Sindh)
x. Loss of range lands & threat livestock population, as in Mussakhel and across Balochistan
xi. Environmental implications, as in case of eroding lands in Mussakhel & coastal lands, and because of industrial pollution in case of Badin(Sindh)
xii. Political marginalization, for agriculture & rural development per se are not focused in public policies
xiii. Cultivable Lands coming under development areas, as in case of coastal areas of Sindh, and areas close to urban/periurban and even village settings
Case Studies from DCs:
-Thailand
Talad is a village of 80 families in Khonken Province, Thailand. Thongdee Nantha has been cultivating one hectare of land using integrated farming methods since 1984. He works the farm with his wife and children and produces more than enough for their needs. They have rice fields, a fishpond and a garden.
In the centre of the farm, they raise a native breed of pigs and rabbits - they are not given artificial feed or supplements, but eat grass, weeds and vegetables from the farm.
Ducks and chickens provide eggs and meat for the family and some eggs for sale - they eat the weeds from the rice fields, vegetable waste and leftover food.
There are seven different varieties of fish. Rice bran, duck and pig manure, and aquatic weeds from the rice fields are fed to the fish; insect- and fish-eating fish are kept in a separate pond in the corner.
The main crop is rice, which occupies about two-thirds of the land. Another third has the rice-fish combination. The trees on the farm, mostly mango, custard apple, banana and papaya, are grown in the centre around the animals and poultry. Thongdee grows many kinds of local vegetables, mostly along the dykes around the pond, as well as medicinal herbs. A reed used for roofing material, the lalang, is also grown around the pond. Then there are some cotton plants from which thread is spun and cloth woven for use by the family.
On the southern edge of the farm there is a road where neem and nitrogen fixing trees are planted. On the western edge bamboo and mulberries serve as a windbreak.
Thongdee is a traditional leader whose farming methods are followed by almost half the families of Talad. A monk, Maha Yu Sunthornchai, who has given an example to farmers all over Thailand, inspired him. Since 1973, Maha Yu has been practicing integrated farming with a combined production cycle of rice, fish, ducks and pigs. This system has remained productive and stable by using the natural cycle of nutrients.
Maha Yu's success in producing his basic needs and marketable surplus from an average-sized farm is based on observation of nature, emphasis on self-reliance and analysis of markets. This technique is not suitable for an absentee landlord or an industrial farmer. For effective integration, every farm procedure (eg., selection of species and breeds, timing of sowing, mixing of crops and pond design) needs regular and keen observation and analysis. Marketing produce at the right times also optimises the returns.
-Colombia
When it comes to growing crops and protecting the environment, Pedro Herrera is on top of things - in more ways than one. The small-scale farmer lives in the upper reaches of southern Colombia's Andean hills, some 1,500 meters above sea level, in the province of Cauca. This is one of the country's poorest regions. But he and his family are active participants in a bold, four year-old experiment to conserve natural resources in the local watershed and to help community members improve their standard of living.
The district where Herrera lives is aptly named 'Buenavista' (Good View). His earthen-floor home overlooks a vast gray-green landscape, which, though spectacular, bears many scars of deforestation and erosion. His fields lie at the head of a 7,000 hectare area drained by the Cabuyal River, which in turn feeds into the larger watershed of the Ovejas River. Water running down from Herrera's land eventually makes its way to the populous city of Cali, 100 kilometres to the north.
With help from the Inter-Institutional Consortium for Sustainable Agriculture on Hillsides (CIPASLA),* Herrera and other farmers have agreed to act as the first line of defense for the Cabuyal watershed. They fence off mountain springs, plant trees, and protect hillside soils from erosion. In return, CIPASLA provides research services, technical advice, training, and information about agricultural production, processing, marketing, land management, and community organization. They also arrange loans for small enterprises such as milk processing and marmalade making. In CIPASLA's approach to sustainable development, the emphasis is on building local community capacity to plan and execute projects.
Pedro Herrera's farm is a showcase for the wide array of crops that can be grown on a small farm without causing a decline in its natural resources. He has set aside more than one-third of his land to protect five natural springs that feed the watershed. Yet his farm income has increased. The 10 hectares remaining in production provide enough both for his extended family of 15 and for the local market. Herrera's crops include beans, maize, coffee, sugarcane, cassava, sweet peas, and, his pride and joy, blackberries. His cows provide milk for his own table and for sale. He raises carp in a hillside pond. In addition, his wife raises chickens, thanks to credit arranged through CIPASLA.
· CIPASLA was launched in 1994 following discussions involving the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombian government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and community groups(International Centre for Tropical Agriculture-2000).
- Zimbabwe:
Zimbabwe is an African country where 'sustainable agriculture' is a new name for an old idea. Sithembiso Byoni works with farmers (most of whom are women), and she knows first hand the kind of damage that modern agriculture has brought. Western-style education has taught us that the old ways are 'primitive', but we are again learning the wisdom and value of them.
We are listening to the knowledge of the old people. Our old women know which crops we should plant together to enhance the soil, to control the insects, to keep the worms away from the seeds in the ground, to keep the birds off the crops.
We are changing back from the commercial monoculture, where you clear everything on the land and then plant a single crop. Now we are going back to multi-cropping. We plant all the crops together. Just as in nature there are bushes growing next to tall trees and little plants, we grow different things together such as maize and groundnuts and millet. We are also returning to using compost and organic fertilisers, as we used to do. And we are going back to using the indigenous seeds, the ones that belong there, from the area, instead of buying them from the big multinational companies. This is what we used to do before the introduction of western methods of agriculture (The Gap, 199).
4.The Sustainable Development Pathway-Strategies for Sustainable Agricultural development:
The strategies planning for sustainable agriculture should therefore aim at:
-Efficient & sustainable use of natural resources: Use of water, land, nutrients, livestock and other natural resources efficiently or at the rate they are replenished so that resources are conserved, for example, using water efficiently means taking into consideration other ecosystem services that water provides (flood mitigation, nutrient cycling, drinking water supply, and sanitation. Manage biodiversity in such a manner that biological resources are sustained, for example, maintaining wild relatives of crop species within agricultural landscapes (woodlots and hedgerows) sustains biodiversity. A sustainability index needs to be worked out, against which situation needs to be monitored regularly and based on that an Early Warning System needs to be institutionalized.
- Protecting the mother environment: Integrate environmental protection in development in general and agricultural development in particular. Minimize the impact of agriculture on the wider environment in order to sustain the other ecosystem services, such as, minimizing chemical inputs, especially non-renewable sources, so there is minimal damage to the surrounding ecosystem. Environmental accounting/audit system needs to be developed & institutionalized.
-Investment in rural & agricultural development: The rural areas need to be developed as centres of growth, with focused research/investment in agriculture in general and value-added industry in particular.
-Enterprise development, access to credit & vertical integration: The small & medium farmers may be mobilized to develop SME clusters with access to credit & technology, and by promoting vertical integration. In this process women may also be involved and concomitantly non-farm skills especially in women be promoted.
-Investment in Research: Building on the Indigenous knowledge and with enhanced investment innovation may be promoted in the agricultural research, so that through efficient production and diversified processes/products competence in competitiveness could be developed.
5.Resources Cited:
1. J. Lundqvist, "Avert looming hydrocide", Ambio, vol. 27, No. 6.
2. FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World (Rome, 1999).
3.A background document entitled "New dimensions in water security" is expected to be submitted by FAO to the Commission at its eighth session.
4.J. A. Allan, "Virtual Water": A Long-Term Solution for Water-Short Middle Eastern Economies? (London, 1997).
5.J. J. Stoorvogel and E. M. A. Smaling, Assessment of Soil Nutrient Depletion in sub-Saharan Africa: 1983-2000, Report No. 28, vol. 1 (Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1990).
6.P. G. Kaumbutho and T. E. Simalenga, eds., Conservation Tillage with Animal Traction: A Resource Book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (Harare, 1999)
7.FAO, "Food production: the critical role of water", technical background document, No. 7, World Food Summit, 13-17 November 1996.
8.Water for food for sub-Saharan Africa", paper prepared for an FAO e-mail conference on the theme "Water for food in sub-Saharan Africa", 1999.
9.P. Pinstrup-Andersen, R. Pandya-Lorch and M. W. Rosegrant, World Food Prospects: Critical Issues for the Early Twenty-first Century, 2020 Food Policy Report (Washington, D.C., International Food Policy Research.
10.Michael Lipton, Crawford Lecture, 28 October 1999 (Washington, D.C., Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research).
11. S.M. Alam and M.A. Khan, Increasing population growth, water logging and salinity converting the arable land into non-agricultural uses (http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/database2/cover/c99-11.asp ),1999.
12.FAO (1994) Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development: Part 1, Latin America and Asia, Development and Education Exchange Papers (DEEP), FAO, Rome
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